Carbon

 diagnostics: 
 *techniques like PET scans and bone scans to visualize internal organs, tissues, and structures,              aiding in the detection of tumors, infections, abnormalities.
 *tracer studies to track the movement and metabolism of isotope labelled molecules.
treatment: 
 * radiation therapy to deliver targeted doses of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors.
 * certain isotopes treat specific conditions like hyperthyroidism. isotopes are taken up by the thyroid gland and destroy overactive cells. 

    ​    3. Hydrogen Bonds

review question: 
describe the structure of an atom. explain why atoms bond with one another.

check out the OH-
​which is an hydroxyl group

   isotopes

review question: 
what is an ion?
how are ions made?
why do ions bond together?

    ​       pH

at pH 7
H+ and OH- concentrations are =

review question: 
explain why the disassociation of water is an important factor in the pH of a solution.

 Electron orbitals 
 predict where an electron might be at any given time.   The number of orbitals increases as the atomic number increases. 

An element's
​atomic number (#protons/# electrons)   is the number listed here at the upper left of each symbol. The atomic mass (#protons + # neutrons) is the number listed below the symbol.
​Carbon (C) has an atomic number or 6 and an atomic mass of 12.01

pH 3
​ has more H+ than pH 6

   isotopes are variations of elements that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. 

   The pH scale measures how much H+ is in a solution.
A lot of Hydrogen = low pH # = an acidic solution = an acid
less H+ = a higher pH = a basic (alkaline) solution = a base

review question: 
in order for a hydrogen bond to occur between two molecules, both molecules  must contain polar covalent bonds.
​ explain why. 

   next up...biologically relevant molecules ;)

review question: 
what is meant by the half life of an isotope? explain how isotopes are clinically useful.

Bonding Types:
​1. Ionic                    2. Covalent            3. Hydrogen

    ​    2. Covalent Bonds

   There can be strong or weak acids and bases...
HCl is a strong acid because it dissociates almost completely in water releasing H+. 
Acetic acid (CH3COOH...vinegar is 6% acetic acid in water) is a weak acid because it does not dissociate well in water.

Bases containing OH- are considered strong, like ​NaOH, because they also dissociate almost completely but they release OH-. what does that do to the pH? Why?

 Na (sodium) atomic number = 11

  Cl (chlorine) atomic number = 17  

is it just about H+?

review question: 
water is a universal solvent. why is this so important referencing living organisms?

   and if that homeostasis goes wonky...

   It is important for cells/tissues maintain pH homeostasis.
The pH of the human body ranges between 7.35 to 7.45, with the average at 7.4  

3 > 6

    Nonpolar

in an aqueous solution,
​as H+ concentration increases, OH- concentration decreases.

 a negative exponent
= a fraction

    ex. 10*-3 = 1/1000

   What do the pH numbers really mean?

 General Chemistry

Oxygen is more electronegative (higher affinity for electrons) than Hydrogen so electrons are unevenly shared, spending more time in the electron cloud around the Oxygen nucleus than the Hydrogen resulting in a polar covalent bond. This causes Oxygen to exhibit a partial negative charge the the Hydrogen to exhibit a partial positive charge. 

    ​   1. ionic Bonds

 A solvent is a substance that dissolves  solute particles.
​  A solute is a substance that is dissolved by a solvent.

 The outermost orbital shell of an atom is called its
​valence shell, and the electrons in the valence shell are valence electrons. Valence electrons are the highest energy electrons in an atom and are therefore the most reactive.

    ​              Properties of Water

 Hydrogen bonds have about a tenth of the strength of an average covalent bond

clinical uses

 10*-3 > 10*-6

 hydrogen bonds are strong intermolecular forces created when a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom (polar covalent bond)  is attracted to a nearby electronegative atom. 

 Carbon-14 
​is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Every 5,730 years, the radioactivity of carbon-14 decays by half which is called its half-life, a fact used during
Carbon Dating.

  Acidosis occurs when your body cannot remove acid from your tissues.

  Lactic acidosis occurs when too much lactic acid builds up in your blood.
  Diabetic acidosis occurs when too many ketone acids build up in your blood. 
             Without enough insulin (diabetes) wnich allows cells to utilize glucose for                          "food", the body begins to break down fat instead of glucose. This causes a                           buildup of acids in the bloodstream called ketones
 Renal tubular acidosis occurs when your kidneys retain too much acid and that acid
             is returned to your blood.
 Respiratory acidosis occurs when your lungs don’t get rid of enough CO2. CO2                               concentration affect pH.
                               CO2 + H2O ---> H2CO3 ---> H+   +   HCO3- 

review question: 
citric acid when dissolved in water has a pH of 3.
​oxalic acid's pH when dissolved in water is closer to 4.
referencing the meaning of the pH numbers, explain which acid donates more H+ to the solution.

review question: 
how is a polar covalent bond different from a non-polar covalent bond?
explain what causes atoms to engage in a polar covalent bond.

Hydrogen Bonds can only occur between two polar molecules. Why?

    Polar