cytokines

Steroid Hormones
are hydrophobic so they can diffuse across the plasma membrane of a cell. Once inside, they bind to receptors in either the cytoplasm or nucleus, forming an activated receptor-hormone complex which moves into the nucleus and binds to the DNA. In this way it serves as a transcription factor, regulating gene expression. Examples of steroid hormones include estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.

Why do we need Iodine?

Thyroid
​ Hormone 

external defenses

complement

Catecholamines are adrenal hormones. Dopamine, norepinephrine; and epinephrine (adrenalin) are examples. Adrenal glands release catecholamines during physical/emotional stress. 

Hypothalamus ->
Pituitary ->
Thyroid

some hormones are lipid 
soluble...

Thyroid/
​Parathyroid
Connection

Blood Glucose controlled by alpha/beta cells of Pancreas

    Acquired Immunity

compared to type 2

  innate vs adaptive
​immunity

...while the
RAA system increases blood pressure

     coronavirus targets ACE=2 surface proteins found in lungs, kidneys, intestines and blood vessel endothelium.

information was scrubbed from the CDC website!
 several CDC resources were removed, including: The HIV index page, testing information, national surveillance reports and multiple data sets.

                             Pathogenic bacteria make us sick by:
1. Invading host cells. Cells  rupture and intercellular bacteria are released. E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella, and   Neisseria gonorrhoeae induce host epithelial cells to engulf them in a process resembling phagocytosis. 

​2. Producing toxins. Toxins are poisons. Endotoxins are part of the cell wall of some bacteria and are released   when the bacteria lyses. Exotoxins are proteins produced inside pathogenic bacteria as part of their growth and   metabolism. Exotoxins are released when bacteria die and inhibit cellular metabolism. Exotoxins are VERY   lethal...1 mg of the botulinum exotoxin is enough to kill one million guinea pigs. Disease is caused by the toxins. 

with subsequent infections to the same pathogen, antibodies are produced much more quickly

  Hilum -->

Hypothalamus/ Pituitary
​Relay

humoral/antibody response:
B cells identify foreign antigens.
B cells are activated by helper T cells.

 immune response cells

G proteins...how do they work?

Classes of Hormones

vaccines trigger a cell mediated response =  active immunity

 cell mediated immunity: cytotoxic T cells destroy pathogen

​Cushing's Disease: excess Cortisol

where do vaccines come in?

  Your spleen is the largest (albeit secondary) organ of your lymphatic system. It's responsible for filtering your blood by removing old or damaged RBCs, storing iron from recycled RBCS, and triggering immune responses by B/T cells circulating in your blood. It exhibits a fibrous capsule attached to the stomach by the gastrosplenic ligament, numerous trabeculae, white pulp where the lymphocytes hang out and red pulp where macrophages  stand by the ready.

what is happening with the CDC, USAID and WHO???

 humoral/antibody immunity: B cells produce antibodies                                                                and memory cells

please get involved and show your outrage that science
​is being supplanted by politics

Interleukin is a type of cytokine that can reset the
thermostat in the hypothalamus increasing body temperature. Monocytes release these and other cytokines in response to pathogenic infection, damage to tissues, or an antigen/antibody reaction.

fever
inflammation
complement
cytokines
phagocytes

  Lymph nodules (1 mm) are areas (no fibrous boundaries) where there are loads of lymphocytes. They are usually located in the loose connective tissue beneath membranes in the digestive system, respiratory system, and bladder. Nodes often form clusters such as your tonsils (pharyngeal, palatine, lingual) in the wall of your pharynx.  Another example is MALT = mucosa associated lymphoid tissue, lymphoid tissue that protects the epithelial lining of your gut, respiratory tract, urinary system and reproductive systems. Peyer's patches are nodule clusters in your gut.   

    Hormone levels are controlled by one of three homeostatic mechanisms:
   
1. Negative feedback by stimulated hormone:    When one hormone stimulates the
    production of a second, the second suppresses the production of the first.

    Ex.: Follicle stimulating hormone FSH stimulates the release of estrogens from the ovary.
             A high level of estrogen, in turn, suppresses the further production of FSH.

2. Antagonistic pair of hormones:
    Ex. Insulin causes the level of blood sugar (glucose) to drop when it is too high.   
           Glucagon causes it to rise when it is too low.

3. Negative Feedback by controlled molecule:
    Hormone secretion is increased (or decreased) by the concentration of the controlled molecule.
     Ex.: As Ca2+ in the blood rises, it suppresses the production of the Parathyroid hormone (PTH).               
             Low levels of Ca2+ stimulate PTH release.

Chemical Signaling

Diabetes

Peptide/Protein Hormones are 
are hydrophylic so they cannot freely cross the plasma membrane requiring receptors on the surface of the cell which are typically coupled to internally anchored proteins such as G proteins. The hormone/receptor complex activates a series of intracellular molecules called second messengers which initiate cell activity, a process called signal transduction. Second messengers include cyclic AMP (cAMP), calcium ions (Ca2+), nitric oxide (NO) and protein kinases. Second messengers amplify the signal.
Peptide hormones consist of short chains of amino acids.
​Protein hormones are longer polypeptides. 
Peptide/Protein hormones include insulin, glucagon, leptin, ADH, oxytocin and GH.

        ​ Innate Immunity

Feedback mechanisms:
a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a "releasing hormone," which stimulates the pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into circulation. The stimulating hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone. As the level of this hormone rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland shut down secretion of the releasing hormone and the stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the secretion by the target gland.

Growth Hormone 

                                         Immunity
​   and the Lymphatic System

         your immune response

inflammation

Amine hormonesare synthesized from the amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine. Ex: melatonin is synthesized from tryptophan... when secreted by the pineal gland it helps regulate circadian rhythm. Tyrosine derivatives include thyroid hormones and
catecholamines such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted by the adrenal medulla and play a role in the fight-or-flight response, whereas dopamine is secreted by the hypothalamus and inhibits the release of certain anterior pituitary hormones. Some amine hormones are polar while others are not. 

Hypothalamus ->
Pituitary ->
Growth Hormone

Diabetes: Type 1

...while others are water soluble

ooops...don't forget
synpatic signaling

 immune response
​participants

Blood Pressure Homeostasis:
ANP decreases blood pressure...

and what about the U.S. abandoning the World Health Organization?

Hypothalamus ->
Pituitary ->
Adrenal glands

  Lymph nodes exhibit a fibrous capsule which extends inward to divide the node into trabelculae Blood vessels enter and exit the node at the hilum as does the efferent lymphatic vessel. Afferent lymphatics enter the node along the opposite margin. Between the two are mesh like areas including the outer cortex which exposes the lymph to B cells, the paracortex which contains T cells, and the medulla also with B cells and macrophages. As lymph travels through these areas and and dense tissue called medullary cords (think a strainer), 99% of antigens are removed and the immune system has a watchful guard dog. The largest nodes are found at the intersections of peripheral areas and the trunk and can swell in response to infection (inflammation of tissue).

  thoracic duct returns lymph from the majority of your body to the left subclavian vein and left internal jugular vein...
​the right lymphatic duct drains the right head and upper arm/torso into the right subclavian vein.

                                 Sequence of Hormone Action:
   1.hormone is synthesized, stored then secreted when release is triggered 
   2.hormone is transported via circulation to target cells
   3.hormone is recognized by specific cells membrane receptors of target cells
   4.hormone signal is relayed and amplified to the cell interior causing cell response
   5.reactions of target cells are recognized by the original hormone-producing
       cells leading to a reduction of hormone production in a negative feedback loop.
   6. hormone is degraded

fever

 Endocrine
​System

and USAID?

Health outbreaks abroad

are a global threat

Hypothalamus ->
Pituitary ->
Gonads

An Endocrine Disease
occurs when a gland produces too much or too little of an endocrine hormone leading to a hormone imbalance. Causes may be the development of nodules or tumors which may affect hormone levels.

internal defenses