Welcome to Dr. Kate Brilakis' Learning Portal
The sequence of the amino acids determines how those amino acids interact with one another which determines how the protein folds which determines its final shape/structure.
Structure/shape of a protein determines its Function!
Most biological processes have ALOT of "steps".
each step is facilitated by a different enzyme.
the chemistry of organic molecules
nucleic acids
they differ based on how their glucose monomers are bonded together.
the substrate must "fit into"
the activation site of the enzyme
Here is the formula for an anabolic (synthetic) enzymatic reaction:
enzyme
substrate + substrate -------------------> product
3 or more monosaccharides bonded together = a polysaccharide
(C6H12O6)n = polysaccharide
2 monomers bonded together (C6H12O6)2 = a disaccharide
This is a triglyceride
see hoe the enzyme names often end in ase.
the name suggests the process that enzyme is affecting
an enzyme will exhibit a
"lock and key specificity
with its substrate.
enzymes can break down polymers releasing monomers =
catabolic reaction
Enzymes
<- this disaccharide is lactose
(milk sugar) made by bonding
one glucose to one galactose
single bond double bond
C - C C = C
ex: lactase breaks down lactose
ex: transaminases move amino groups from
one molecule to another.
a specific DNA sequence = a gene
Tay Sachs Disease
enzyme activity can be regulated by inhibitors.
Why would regulation be necessary?
hydrolysis
polymers are broken into monomers.
water is added.
H2O = H + OH
a bond between two monomers is broken.
the bond sites are satisfied with the addition of an H to one monomer and an OH to the other monomer.
some amino acids are considered essential =we can't build them ourselves in our cells, while others are non-essential = we can build these
and a specific gene "codes" for a specific protein by serving as the instruction book to assemble amino acids into proteins.
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there are four different
nucleotides used to build
DNA: A,T,C,G
Here is the formula for a general enzymatic reaction:
enzyme
substrate -------------------> product
proteins
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there are four types of organic molecules
Here is the formula for a catabolic (degradative) enzymatic reaction:
enzyme
substrate -------------------> product + product
there are 20 different amino acids. these 20 different types of amino acids are the same except for their R group.
the "R" group determines to which of the 20 amino acid groups that amino acid belongs.
OMG super important!!
here are the 20 different amino acids --->
the R group that each amino acid possesses give that
amino acid certain characteristics that affect how it
behaves around other amino acids..
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
many amino acids bonded together forms a chain called a polypeptide
more about enzymes later in
this section ;)
so what is a protein?
lipids
more inhibitors present = less product
fewer inhibitors present = more product
Phospholipids:
made from one glycerol, TWO fatty acids and one phosphate group. Phospholipids make up all cell membranes
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mutations may lead to a change in how the amino acids are lined up when the cell makes a protein.
if the amino acid sequence is wrong, the chain of amino acids will fold differently causing the protein to have a different shape. this different shape may cause the function of the protein to be different ior the protein to not work at all.
some fatty acids exhibit double bonds between their carbons
amino acids have an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and an R group.
carbohydrates
#C atoms
<- this disaccharide is sucrose
(table sugar) made by bonding
together fructose and glucose
what is a phospholipid?
DNA and RNA are polymers.
these polymers are made from monomers called nucleotides
A HEXA gene mutation causes a deficiency of the enzyme beta-hexosaminidase A (hex A).
Hex A is necessary for the break down of a fat called GM2 ganglioside found in the brain.
without this enzyme present,
the ganglioside accumulates and damages the brain.
but what if the sequence of the DNA of a specific gene is "different" from what it is supposed t o be? now we have a mutation!
types of polysaccharides are:
covalent bond
if the sequence of the amino acids determines the structure and function of a protein,
what determines the sequence of the amino acids?
DNA!
RNA is another type of nucleic acid polymer made from nucleotide monomers. RNA's monomers are kind of similar BUT not the same.
fyi: what are trans fats or
partially hydrogenated fats?
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questions to consider:
1. What is a monomer? a polymer?
2. List the monomers used to build:
proteins
carbohydrates
lipids
nucleic acids
3. What makes one type of polysaccharide different from another?
4. What is glucose? What is its formula?
5. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. What does this mean?
6. Why can't we graze on grass for our nutritional needs?
7. How many amino acids are there? What makes one amino acid different
from another? What is an essential amino acid?
8. Explain why the sequence in which amino acids are bonded
together to make a protein is important.
9. Explain what might happen if this sequence is incorrect and why.
10. Triglyceride lipids (fats) are made from two different monomers.
They are ____and ___.
11. What makes a triglyceride saturated? How does this affect how this fat is metabolized?
12. Explain the process of dehydration synthesis.
Explain the process of hydrolysis.
13. What is the function of an enzyme?
14. How is an anabolic reaction different from a catabolic reaction?
Would the same enzyme facilitate both? Why or why not?
15. DNA is composed of monomers called _____________. How many of these DNA monomers are there? How are they different? How are they the same?
16. What is the function of DNA?
17. Another nucleic acid is RNA? How does it different from DNA?
What is RNA's job?
18. What is a gene?
19. What is a mutation?
20. If there is a mutation in a gene, how might this affect the organism?
21. What is a phospholipid? Why are these polymers sooooo important?
19. Why do enzymatic reactions often rely on inhibitors? How do inhibitors
influence enzymatic reactions.
20. Organic molecules must contain ______.
3. nucleic acids
these two processes are used to create and degrade
lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids
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1. Carbohydrates
are you lactose "intolerant"?
if so, you do not synthesize lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose.
RNA's nucleotide monomers are
A, U, C, G.
U is used instead of T
and the sugar of RNA nucleotides is ribose.
many pathologies occur when there are deficiencies in enzyme production such as...
protein folding has four stages:
primary
secondary
tertiary
quartenary
carbohydrate monomers are
monosaccharides
why is the enzyme name above the arrow?
A only pairs with T
C only pairs with G
a nucleotide is hydrogen bonded to its partner in the center (rungs) of the ladder
dehydration synthesis
monomers bond together to form polymers by removing
an H from one monomer and an OH from the other.
water (H2O)is formed
H + OH = H2O
the molecules bond can then together at the empty bonding sites.
the sequence of the DNA nucleotides determines
in what order different
amino acids will be connected =
the sequence of the amino acids.
another nucleic acid called RNA is used as as a go between
the monomers used to make proteins are called amino acids. amino acids are also called peptides (kinda old timey)
enzymes
facilitate chemical reactions, allowing them to occur faster while using less energy
<- these three molecules all have the same formula but different atomic arrangement. they are therefore considered isomers of one another
how are organic polymers made
and how are they broken down??
glucose (C6H12O6)
is a monosaccharide
but also fructose and galactose
for example: sickle cell disease
Lipids are made from two different types of monomers:
1 glycerol monomer
3 fatty acid monomers
enzymes
are proteins that have an activation site that can bind to a substrate and cause the substrate to be modified into a product.
4. Lipids (fats)
double C bonds cause the fatty acid to exhibit a kink in its structure. this makes it easier for the body to break down and process.
the glycerol is always the same but the three fatty acids can be different. It's the types of fatty acids that are bonded to the glycerol that determine what type of fat it will be
fyi:
trans fats not only raise LDL ("bad") cholesterol levels (as saturated fats also do), they also lower levels of HDL ("good") cholesterol.
forces occur between amino acids in a polypeptide that cause the polypeptide bend and twist into a 3D shape.
enzymes can build polymers from monomers =
anabolic reactions
amino acids are bonded together via covalent bonds called peptide bonds
2. Proteins
these nucleotides are arranged in pairs along a double stranded DNA polymer which resembles a ladder.
a mutation = an error in the DNA sequence
enzymes lower a reaction's activation energy