neurotransmitters relay information from one cell
​to another across a synapse separating the two cells.

review question:
what is meant by facilitated diffusion?. Is it an example of
passive or active transport.
Explain. 

an endosymbiont is one organism that lives inside of another organism

clinical depression
=
neurotransmitter deficiency

proof...

can molecules move in or out of the cell without using transport proteins?

the covalent bonds holding the atoms in glucose together are broken in a series of exergonic reactions. the energy released is used to produce ATP in a series of endergonic reactions. 

chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis
in plant/algae cells.
pigments called chlorophyll are used to capture light energy and use this  energy to bond together via a series of endergonic reactions molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to make glucose (C6H12O6)

​                        variations of endocytosis:
 pinocytosis = via endocytosis cell intakes small droplets of extracellular fluid and                                      dissolved solutes
 phagocytosis = via endocytosis cell takes in large particles such as bacteria or dead cells
 receptor-mediated endocytosis = cell takes in specific molecules that bind to receptors
                                                              on the cell membrane 

review question:
after watching this movie
<----
explain the role of the cytoskeleton and how microtubules play a role.

the following is FYI...

Domain Eukarya contains

4 Kingdoms

Protista, Fung, Plantae, Animalia

mitochondria are organelles
also composed of membranes.
 most of the chemical energy of the cell in the form of
ATP = adenosine triphosphate
is produced in the mitochondria 

cell membrane recognition proteins (antigens)
the unique set of these proteins on the surface of a cell

These proteins trigger an immune system to identify what does not belong there...
bacteria or viruses or a parasite.

Domain Eukarya

review question:
describe the structure of the plasma membrane including the phospholipid polymers that are used to construct it.

remember our phospholipid bilayer

review question:
list the four kingdoms in Domain Eukarya. What structural detail do they al have in common?

centrioles are involved in cell division by organizing the spindles that pull apart the duplicated chromatids (DNA) during cell division. 

Channel proteins are a type of transport protein 

endocytosis
​is the process of taking in material by enclosing it in a vesicle while
​exocytosis
is the opposite process, where the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and expels its contents to the outside of the cell

speaking of cell division...

then what...?

enter the
golgi apparatus

--------------------------------------------------

if ligand = hormone 

these organelles are part of the same cycle 

centrioles
are organelles that direct placement of these ​microtubules.
they also help determine the location of the nucleus and other organelles.

review question:
how are chloroplasts and mitochondria connected via
a "circle of life"

osmosis

ribosomes

              channel proteins may:
1. always open              OR

2. be gated
     a. ligand gated: require a ligand molecule to            bind to it to open the channel
     b. mechanically gated: require pressure to
          pop open channel
     c. voltage gated: requires an electrical
          impulse to trigger it to open

chloroplasts

endosymbiosis

Domains
Bacteria and Archae

remember from last section...

the structure
of a cell dictates its
​ function

light energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2

review question:
mitochondria are called "cell powerhouses" in the 6th grade.
Explain in college terms what this means. 

 endocytosis

the cytoskeleton  is made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments. These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In addition, they provide a basis for movement and cell division.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

clinical/non-clinical drugs and neurotransmitter action

remember from last section...

the number of bacterial cells in our bodies outnumbers the number of our tissue cells. Whoa! 

improper cell adhesion results in many diseases such as arthritis, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis and cancer.
​cancer cells have few adhesion proteins which allow these cells to mess up tissue structure and metastasize to other tissues. 

the covalent bonds holding the atoms in glucose together are broken in a series of exergonic reactions. the energy released is used to produce ATP in a series of endergonic reactions. 

mitochondria

extra credit question:
explain how neurotransmitters
​carry out their function

last  but not least...

the cytoskeleton

active transport

let's look at the
cell structure of eukaryotes
​ and then we'll go into more detail about the individual kingdoms.

then those proteins destined for use outside of the cell are placed in a vesicle and transported
to the cell membrane for exocytosis

but there is also the processes of 
endocytosis and exocytosis

review question:
a protein is needed by a part of the organism body outside of a cell. starting with the nucleus, explain
how this protein will be produced and exported from the cell.
hint:

DNA, RNA, Ribosome, RER, transport vesicle, Golgi apparatus, exocytosis

review question:
what are the criteria used to classify members of Domain Eukarya?

both mitochondria and chloroplasts
replicate via binary fission just like bacteria

cell structure:
​cell membrane proteins:
transport, carrier, recognition (antigen) and adhesion

--------------------------------------------------

both mitochondria and chloroplasts
have double membrane systems with an outer membrane that may have come from the vessicle via endocytosis

so all three
nucleus - ribosomes - ER
are responsible for producing proteins

the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
produces proteins and lipids.
*the rough ER (RER) is imbedded with ribosomes.
ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell.
*the smooth ER (SER) does not exhibit ribosomes and
is responsible for membrane lipid synthesis.
The ER processes proteins and gets them ready to be transported out of the cell. 

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + cell energy (ATP)

 Cell Membrane Adhesion Proteins 
​form connections between cells and between cells and their extracellular matrix. 

the Golgi apparatus processes, sorts and packages proteins sent from the ER...

kind of like a post office.

example: insulin

stores the cell's DNA and controls its use by:
 regulating gene expression
regulating protein synthesis
regulating mitosis/meiosis
assembling ribosomes in its nucleolus

if ligand = neurotransmitter 

 exocytosis

review question:
what is the function of recognition proteins?

if channel proteins are ligand gated...
they  function as membrane receptor proteins
Hormones and neurotransmitters are called ligands.
When they bind to the receptor proteins, the activity of the cell to which they attach is altered.
​This is called signal transduction.
Receptor sites are specific.
 There are different receptor sites for different hormones and neurotransmitters.
 A cell might have 20 different types of receptor sites while another might have just one. 
​ The type of receptor site a target cell has determines what type of hormone or neurotransmitter can affect (or not affect) the cell.

  nucleus

types of neurotransmitters

ok we're back to content that's required learning

​​​ Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles used
 to store material in the cell. 

cell adhesion proteins permit cells to stick  to one another and/or to the extracellular matrix. 

both mitochondria and chloroplasts
can be damaged by certain antibiotics such as
chloramphenicol

review question:
explain  the process of exocytosis and endocytosis. 

extra credit question:
explain how ligand binding  can facilitate the uptake of polymers across a membrane. 

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

no energy
​output required
​by cell

both mitochondria and chloroplasts
have ribosomes which are the same size as bacterial ribosomes

review question:
explain the endosymbiotic theory. include three data sets that support this scientific theory.

how did these organelles evolve?

review question:
give an example of a type of cell that would not benefit from adhesion proteins. 

extra credit question:
explain the mechanics of drug addiction

let's continue with a bit of detail about other cellular structures

eukaryotic cells

basically...
​vacuoles store
vesicles transport

ribosomes are made of both RNA and protein.
they produce proteins by reading the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence that comes out of the nucleus. This mRNA sequence is carrying information on how to build proteins stored in the DNA. In the ribosome, the mRNA information is translated into a specified sequence of amino acids which when folded functions as a specific protein. 

energy
​output required
​ by cell

and then click here to learn about the different kingdoms of Domain Eukarya

​and complete chapter 4

The Endocannabinoid (EC) System
Cannabinoids are naturally occurring molecules. They interact with neuron receptors in a sort of backward way. Cannabinoids are released by postsynaptic neurons and travel to the presynaptic neuron where they attach to cannabinoid receptors to modulate that neurons release of neurotransmitters. By acting on presynaptic cells, they act as a “dimmer switch” for these neurons, reducing the amount of neurotransmitter they release.  THC from marijuana overtakes the EC system by attaching to cannabinoid receptors throughout the brain and other parts of the body, interfering with the fine tuning of the naturally occurring cannabinoids. Cannabinoid receptors are all over the body so THC intake results in many alterations throughout the body.
(Cannabis sativa's active ingredient = delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC))

​​​   Vesicles are smaller, membrane-bound organelles
 used to transport material around the cell and
  often fuse with other membranes to deliver their
          goods.

both mitochondria and chloroplasts have circular DNA similar to bacterial DNA which is separate from the linear DNA found in the nucleus.
this DNA codes for proteins needed by these specific organelles.  

vacuoles vs vesicles?

cell structure:
plasma(cell) membrane

passive transport

let's briefly review diffusion and osmosis
​from section 1

SSRIs work to maintain normal levels of serotonin in the cleft.

SSRIs are commonly called anti-depressants

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that binds to specialized dopamine receptors on a post synaptic neuron. Transporter proteins remove dopamine from the synapse to be recycled for future use. Cocaine acts by binding to the dopamine transporter, blocking the removal of dopamine from the synapse. As dopamine accumulates in the synapse, it amplifies the neurotransmitter's actions.