review question:

explain how mRNA vaccines confer immunity.

intrinsic antibiotic resistance =
 a bacterium's natural resistance to an antibiotic
acquired resistance =
 a previously susceptible bacterium develops resistance due to genetic changes or the transfer of resistance genes

review question:

in basic terms, describe your 3 lines of defenses of your immune response

review question:

explain how
​traditional vaccines confer immunity.

For eighty years, cowpox vaccination against smallpox remained the only vaccine in use around the world. Then Louis Pasteur, theorized that something in the saliva of rabid animals biting humans and cattle was causing rabies. He exposed animals to small doses of rabies but the rabies virus was too virulent.
​He needed to weaken the pathogen first.
This is now called attentuation. 

​Smallpox variolation involved drying the smallpox crud before giving it to someone. It was believed the drying caused the material to be less virulent. Pasteur tried this with the brains and spinal cords of infected rabbits because he knew that the pathogen attacked the central nervous system. He gave the dried spinal cord of one infected rabbit to another. When that rabbit developed rabies, he killed it and repeated the process. Several rabbits later, rabbits exposed to the dried brain and spinal cord were not getting sick and when exposed to fresh infected brains were remaining healthy.

Louis Pasteur (like Jenner) exposed humans to the dried material in reverse, starting with dried brain and spinal cord from the last rabbit to be inoculated then working toward the brains from the first rabbit.
Stronger and stronger doses of the rabies virus were given to the human guinea pigs. After 21 days, there was no sign of disease. Pasteur's vaccine was a success. This was the next leap in vaccination:
1. an analogue to the infectious agent -- cowpox for smallpox -- was first
2. an infectious agent in a less virulent ("attenuated") way was second. 

Toxoid vaccines were third.
Anti-toxins were created when a toxin from tetanus or diphtheria was given to a large animal.
 The mammal would develop antibodies against the toxin.
The antibodies were harvested, purified, and given to people showing signs of the disease.

In 1902, after a batch was contaminated, the United States federal government responded by creating the agency now known as the Food and Drug Administration, the first step toward regulation of medicines.

In the 1920s, scientists discovered that an antitoxin combined with a toxin would inactivate the toxin but
the human immune system would still to react against it. Antitoxin-toxin vaccines for diphtheria and tetanus were developed. To avoid allergic reactions to the proteins from harvesting from other animals,
toxins were inactivated before giving it as a vaccine starting the age of toxoid vaccines against 
 diphtheria and tetanus.

By 1954, after decades of research, Jonas Salk and his team developed the first killed virus vaccine building on the work of Dr. Isabel Morgan. It was a vaccine against polio.
Up to then, vaccines contained live or attenuated virus. The polio vaccine showed that a dead virus could  cause an immune response. 

The 1960s brought the oral polio vaccine as a replacement to Salk's vaccine.
By the early 2000s, polio was eliminated from the Americas, Europe, and most of Asia. 

As scientists discovered that for some pathogens, their surface proteins were enough to trigger an immune response, the era of subunit vaccines was born. 
As scientists discovered that the genetic material of pathogens could be used in the laboratory to create the proteins, the era of recombinant vaccines was born.

selective toxicity =
 the ability of a drug to target/harm a pathogen without harming the host. 

Isn't that always the goal...! 

                               what practices lead to resistance?
1. using antibiotics when they are not needed like for a viral infection
2. using the wrong antibiotic for a specific infection
3. not finishing the full course of antibiotics as prescribed
4. using antibiotics in animal feed to promote grow

vaccine denial's 
​ threat to 
herd immunity

antimicrobial drugs

but you have learned...!!!

 Inoculation (also called variolation) against pathogens was invented by a Taoist or Buddhist monk or nun over 1000 years ago.
 The practice of inoculation traveled west, reaching what is now  Turkey in the mid-1600s. From there, inoculation traveled to Europe and Northern Africa then to the Massachusetts Colony via an enslaved man named Onesimus. Onesimus told Reverend Cotton Mather (Salem Witchcraft Trials guy) about being inoculated by enslavers to resist smallpox. Mather and a local doctor in Boston promoted inoculation during a deadly smallpox epidemic arrived in Boston in 1721.

Around the same time, Lady Mary Wortley Montague, a British socialite living in Constantinople , had her son inoculated by a local doctor. She then had her daughter living home in Scotland inoculated. By 1723, evidence proved that inoculation was preferable to catching smallpox. 

After his son died from smallpox in 1736, Benjamin Franklin became a champion of inoculation.
In 1759, Benjamin Franklin wrote of the death rates of those who were variolated/inoculated, offering proof that the risk of death was lower in those who were inoculated. General George Washington ordered the American troops to be inoculated as part of their intake into the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. 
​
Despite all of this, Edward Jenner and his milk maid story persists...

      the therapeutic index (TI)
is a ratio that compares the blood concentration at which a drug causes a therapeutic effect to the amount that causes death or or toxicity.

drug development

vaccines

how antimicrobials work

how do vaccines provide immunity? 

immunological diagnostic testing

maybe this was the goal... 

                    



​
 
                                      1. the vaccine exposes the body to a pathogen's antigens
                                      2. the body's immune system recognizes the pathogen as a
                                            threat and begins to produce antibodies
                                      3. B lymphocytes create antibodies that are specific to the pathogen
                                      4. some B lymphocytes become memory cells that can
                                            quickly produce antibodies against any future exposure
                                      5. antibodies in the bloodstream protect against future
                                            infections with the same pathogen. 

congratulations on completing the program!!!

intrinsic
​resistance 

vaccine hesitancy

How do mRNA vaccines work??
 RNA injected via the vaccine  tells your cells' protein-producing machinery to create proteins that mimic the antigens on the coronavirus' surface. These proteins are presented to T cells and B cells.
The T cells then destroy any virus or virus-infected cells
The B cells produce antibodies to deactivate viruses and give long-term immunity.

the rundown on vaccines...

antimicrobial drugs are used to fight infections caused by microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites...
 antibiotics (for bacterial infections)
 antifungals (for fungal infections)
 antivirals (for viral infections)
antiparasitics (for parasitic infections)

acquired
​ resistance

broad              v          narrow spectrum

quick recap on your immune response...